Does anyone know whether or not slaves were forbidden BY LAW to read and
write in post-Nat Turner Virginia?

One person told me that after 1831 it was only illegal to assemble slaves
for instruction, and thus there were never any schools for slaves.
However, one-on-one instruction by a white person was *not* prohibited, and
in fact, encouraged in some settings (e.g., reading the Bible).

Then someone else told me, no, Virginia law punished any slave exhibiting
literacy.  I often hear or read the blanket statement, "It was illegal for
slaves to read and write in Virginia before the Civil War."

I know many slaves learned to read and write in late-antebellum Virginia,
and that many slaves sought and received education despite the law, but I
am curious exactly what the legal code permitted and prohibited.

I hope someone might be able to resolve my confusion.

Many thanks,

Ted

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