Trying out Gemini Bard with a query about how prevalent Hoodoo was in colonial Virginia, I got a confident answer (see below, I.), including this firm statement:
* First, there are numerous accounts of enslaved Africans practicing magic and divination. These accounts come from both white observers and former slaves themselves. For example, a 1676 law in Virginia specifically prohibited enslaved people from practicing "conjuration, witchcraft, sorcery, enchanters, or fortune telling."
But googling the quoted words turns up nothing.
So is this hallucination? Was there such a law? (Wikipedia, in its pretty exhaustive entry on Hoodoo, cites a 1748 law restricting Blacks from “administering medicines,” but nothing in 1676.)
The bottle pictured at the end (“No. 17 / Crown of Success”; one image, not “some”), btw, is for sale at Amazon and is unconnected to colonial Virginia; and I’m curious too about “numerous accounts” from both whites and former slaves. With help from members of this list, I found some, but not many, accounts for my “Hoodoo in Williamsburg<https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4513006>.” Happy to be guided to more.
I then tried a second time, asking for "concrete details, quotations, and footnote citations please”; I got those in II. below.
And again I am having problems verifying things. The one “Mary Bateman” witch I can find, for example, lived in England, 1768-1809. Grace Sherwood, the Witch of Pungo, has no connection to Hoodoo that I know of, and was first accused not in 1691 but in 1697. No mention in II., btw, of any 1676 law.
And I can’t find that anyone ever published a book entitled "African American Archaeology: Theory, Politics, and Practice.” Nor can I find the words attributed to William Byrd in his Diary, or anywhere else.
Gemini Bard may not be ready for prime time….
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I. First Response
The prevalence of Hoodoo in colonial Virginia is a complex and contested issue among historians. However, there is growing evidence to suggest that it was likely more widespread than previously thought.
Hoodoo is a syncretic Afro-American spiritual tradition that blends elements of African religions, European folk magic, and Christianity. It was brought to the Americas by enslaved Africans and evolved over time to incorporate local practices and beliefs.
While there are no reliable statistics on the number of Hoodoo practitioners in colonial Virginia, there are several lines of evidence that suggest it was quite prevalent.
* First, there are numerous accounts of enslaved Africans practicing magic and divination. These accounts come from both white observers and former slaves themselves. For example, a 1676 law in Virginia specifically prohibited enslaved people from practicing "conjuration, witchcraft, sorcery, enchanters, or fortune telling."
* Second, there is a growing body of archaeological evidence that suggests Hoodoo rituals were being performed in colonial Virginia. This evidence includes the discovery of conjure bottles, mojo bags, and other ritual objects.
* Third, Hoodoo practices have survived to the present day in African American communities in Virginia. This suggests that the tradition has been passed down through the generations, even though it was often suppressed and persecuted.
Based on this evidence, it is likely that Hoodoo was a significant part of the lives of many enslaved Africans and their descendants in colonial Virginia. It provided them with a way to cope with the harsh realities of slavery, maintain a connection to their African roots, and resist the dominant white culture.
However, it is important to note that Hoodoo was a diverse and adaptable tradition. There was no single "correct" way to practice Hoodoo, and individual practitioners often blended elements from different sources to create their own unique practices. This makes it difficult to say for sure how prevalent Hoodoo was in colonial Virginia, or what it looked like in practice.
More research is needed to fully understand the role of Hoodoo in colonial Virginia. But the evidence that is currently available suggests that it was a significant and vibrant tradition that played an important role in the lives of many enslaved Africans and their descendants.
Here are some images that depict Hoodoo in colonial Virginia:
Opens in a new window <https://www.amazon.com/Intention-Essential-Spiritual-Achievement-Financial/dp/B09HY4D11T>
www.amazon.com<https://www.amazon.com/Intention-Essential-Spiritual-Achievement-Financial/dp/B09HY4D11T>
Hoodoo conjure bottle
It is important to note that these images are representations of Hoodoo and may not be accurate depictions of how Hoodoo was actually practiced in colonial Virginia.
II. Second Response
Prevalence of Hoodoo in Colonial Virginia:
Hoodoo, a spiritual practice combining African, European, and Native American traditions, had a demonstrably strong presence in colonial Virginia. While direct evidence remains scarce due to the marginalized status of practitioners, numerous sources reveal its significant influence.
Concrete details:
* Court records: References to conjure, witchcraft, and fortune-telling appear in legal documents,indicating the practice's presence even amidst condemnation. In 1645, Virginia's General Court indicted a woman named Mary Bateman for "being a notorious witch and sorceress," and in 1691,another woman named Grace Sherwood faced similar charges.[1]
* Slave narratives: Accounts from formerly enslaved individuals mention hoodoo practices like rootwork and conjure, offering insights into its use for healing, protection, and resistance against oppression.[2]
* Archaeological finds: Excavations in Virginia have unearthed objects associated with hoodoo rituals, including animal bones, charms, and bottles containing various materials, providing concrete evidence of physical manifestations of the practice.[3]
Quotations:
* William Byrd II, a Virginia planter, wrote in his diary in 1705: "There is another Sort of Conjuring practiced here, by Negroes, and called Obi... They pretend that by this Means they can kill whom they please.”[4]
* Harriet Jacobs, a formerly enslaved woman, described in her autobiography how her grandmother used conjure to protect herself and her children: "Grandmother was skilled in the use of herbs, and possessed a strong natural intelligence. She had also acquired considerable knowledge of the occult sciences, which she used for the benefit of herself and her fellow-slaves.”[5]
Footnote citations:
1. [Isaac S. Harrell, Jr., "Conjure and Christianity: Religious Acculturation among Antebellum Blacks," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 24, no. 4 (1994): 615-636.]
2. [Sterling Stuckey, "Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America" (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 125-144.]
3. [Kathleen M. Brown, "African American Archaeology: Theory, Politics, and Practice" (New York:Routledge, 2001), 115-117.]
4. [The William Byrd Diary Project, William Byrd's Secret History of the Line, ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tinling (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 218.]
5. [Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (1861), Chapter 20.]
Additional points:
* Despite facing repression and accusations of witchcraft, hoodoo provided a sense of control and spiritual solace for enslaved individuals and marginalized communities.
* The practice continues to evolve today, incorporating elements of various cultural influences and serving as a vital part of African American heritage.
Further research suggestions:
* Exploring the specific rituals and practices of hoodoo in colonial Virginia.
* Examining the role of women and other marginalized groups in the transmission and preservation of the tradition.
* Analyzing the impact of hoodoo on the cultural and religious landscape of Virginia.
By delving deeper into these areas, we can gain a richer understanding of the significance and persistence of hoodoo in both the colonial past and the present.
Sources
1. networks.h-net.org/node/16821/reviews/18816/sepinwall-schorsch-jews-and-blacks-early-modern-world<https://networks.h-net.org/node/16821/reviews/18816/sepinwall-schorsch-jews-and-blacks-early-modern-world>
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Terry L. Meyers, Chancellor Professor of English, Emeritus, The College of William and Mary, in Virginia, Williamsburg 23187
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